ࡱ>  Wbjbj££ D/ &&vvv8\D%bbbbby${${${${${${$$)+$9v"$&&bb3$&8bvby$y$:u",^"b>Ev" e$$0%"Rn,n,"n,v"h$$%n, :  Year 2 (A2) Learning Outcomes in Teaching Order You will be assessed on your ability to: 6.1 Stimuli, both internal and external, are detected and lead to a response Spec pointSubject content Textbook Reference Section & PagesRAG ratingRAG6.1.1 Survival and responseOrganisms increase their chance of survival by responding to changes in their environment. In flowering plants, specific growth factors move from growing regions to other tissues, where they regulate growth in response to directional stimuli. The effect of different concentrations of indoleacetic acid (IAA) on cell elongation in the roots and shoots of flowering plants as an explanation of gravitropism and phototropism in flowering plants. Taxes and kineses as simple responses that can maintain a mobile organism in a favourable environment. The protective effect of a simple reflex, exemplified by a three neurone simple reflex. Details of spinal cord and dorsal and ventral roots are not required.Required practical 10:Investigation into the effect of an environmental variable on the movement of an animal using either a choice chamber or a maze.6.1.2 ReceptorsThe Pacinian corpuscle should be used as an example of a receptor to illustrate that: receptors respond only to specific stimuli stimulation of a receptor leads to the establishment of a generator potential. The basic structure of a Pacinian corpuscle. Deformation of stretch-mediated sodium ion channels in a Pacinian corpuscle leads to the establishment of a generator potential. The human retina in sufficient detail to show how differences in sensitivity to light, sensitivity to colour and visual acuity are explained by differences in the optical pigments of rods and cones and the connections rods and cones make in the optic nerve6.1.3 Control of heart rateMyogenic stimulation of the heart and transmission of a subsequent wave of electrical activity. The roles of the sinoatrial node (SAN), atrioventricular node (AVN) and Purkyne tissue in the bundle of His. The roles and locations of chemoreceptors and pressure receptors and the roles of the autonomic nervous system and effectors in controlling heart rate.6.2.1 Nerve impulsesThe structure of a myelinated motor neurone. The establishment of a resting potential in terms of differential membrane permeability, electrochemical gradients and the movement of sodium ions and potassium ions. Changes in membrane permeability lead to depolarisation and the generation of an action potential. The all-or-nothing principle. The passage of an action potential along non-myelinated and myelinated axons, resulting in nerve impulses. The nature and importance of the refractory period in producing discrete impulses and in limiting the frequency of impulse transmission. Factors affecting the speed of conductance: myelination and saltatory conduction; axon diameter; temperature.6.2.2 Synaptic transmissionThe detailed structure of a synapse and of a neuromuscular junction. The sequence of events involved in transmission across a cholinergic synapse in sufficient detail to explain: unidirectionality temporal and spatial summation inhibition by inhibitory synapses. A comparison of transmission across a cholinergic synapse and across a neuromuscular junction. Students should be able to use information provided to predict and explain the effects of specific drugs on a synapse. (Recall of the names and mode of action of individual drugs will not be required.)6.3 Skeletal muscles are stimulated to contract by nerves and act as EffectorsMuscles act in antagonistic pairs against an incompressible skeleton. Gross and microscopic structure of skeletal muscle. The ultrastructure of a myofibril. The roles of actin, myosin, calcium ions and ATP in myofibril contraction. The roles of calcium ions and tropomyosin in the cycle of actinomyosin bridge formation. (The role of troponin is not required.) The roles of ATP and phosphocreatine in muscle contraction. The structure, location and general properties of slow and fast skeletal muscle fibres.6.4.1 Principles of homeostasis and negative feedbackHomeostasis in mammals involves physiological control systems that maintain the internal environment within restricted limits. The importance of maintaining a stable core temperature and stable blood pH in relation to enzyme activity. The importance of maintaining a stable blood glucose concentration in terms of availability of respiratory substrate and of the water potential of blood. Negative feedback restores systems to their original level. The possession of separate mechanisms involving negative feedback controls departures in different directions from the original state, giving a greater degree of control. Students should be able to interpret information relating to examples of negative and positive feedback.6.4.2 Control of blood glucose concentrationThe factors that influence blood glucose concentration. The role of the liver in glycogenesis, glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. The action of insulin by: attaching to receptors on the surfaces of target cells controlling the uptake of glucose by regulating the inclusion of channel proteins in the surface membranes of target cells activating enzymes involved in the conversion of glucose to glycogen. The action of glucagon by: attaching to receptors on the surfaces of target cells activating enzymes involved in the conversion of glycogen to glucose activating enzymes involved in the conversion of glycerol and amino acids into glucose. The role of adrenaline by: attaching to receptors on the surfaces of target cells activating enzymes involved in the conversion of glycogen to glucose. The second messenger model of adrenaline and glucagon action, involving adenyl cyclate, cyclic AMP (cAMP) and protein kinase. The causes of types I and II diabetes and their control by insulin and/ or manipulation of the diet. Students should be able to evaluate the positions of health advisers and the food industry in relation to the increased incidence of type II diabetes.Required practical 11:Production of a dilution series of a glucose solution and use of colorimetric techniques to produce a calibration curve with which to identify the concentration of glucose in an unknown urine sample.6.4.3 Control of blood water potentialOsmoregulation as control of the water potential of the blood. The roles of the hypothalamus, posterior pituitary and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) in osmoregulation. The structure of the nephron and its role in: the formation of glomerular filtrate reabsorption of glucose and water by the proximal convoluted tubule maintaining a gradient of sodium ions in the medulla by the loop of Henle reabsorption of water by the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts.7. Genetics, populations, evolution and ecosystems7.1 InheritanceThe genotype is the genetic constitution of an organism. The phenotype is the expression of this genetic constitution and its interaction with the environment. There may be many alleles of a single gene. Alleles may be dominant, recessive or codominant. In a diploid organism, the alleles at a specific locus may be either homozygous or heterozygous. The use of fully labelled genetic diagrams to interpret, or predict, the results of: monohybrid and dihybrid crosses involving dominant, recessive and codominant alleles crosses involving sex-linkage, autosomal linkage, multiple alleles and epistasis. Use of the chi-squared (2) test to compare the goodness of fit of observed phenotypic ratios with expected ratios.7.2 PopulationsSpecies exist as one or more populations. A population as a group of organisms of the same species occupying a particular space at a particular time that can potentially interbreed. The concepts of gene pool and allele frequency. The HardyWeinberg principle provides a mathematical model, which predicts that allele frequencies will not change from generation to generation. The conditions under which the principle applies. The frequency of alleles, genotypes and phenotypes in a population can be calculated using the HardyWeinberg equation: p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 where p is the frequency of one (usually the dominant) allele and q is the frequency of the other (usually recessive) allele of the gene.7.3 Evolution may lead to speciationIndividuals within a population of a species may show a wide range of variation in phenotype. This is due to genetic and environmental factors. The primary source of genetic variation is mutation. Meiosis and the random fertilisation of gametes during sexual reproduction produce further genetic variation. Predation, disease and competition for the means of survival result in differential survival and reproduction, ie natural selection. Those organisms with phenotypes providing selective advantages are likely to produce more offspring and pass on their favourable alleles to the next generation. The effect of this differential reproductive success on the allele frequencies within a gene pool. The effects of stabilising, directional and disruptive selection. Evolution as a change in the allele frequencies in a population. Reproductive separation of two populations can result in the accumulation of difference in their gene pools. New species arise when these genetic differences lead to an inability of members of the populations to interbreed and produce fertile offspring. In this way, new species arise from existing species. Allopatric and sympatric speciation. The importance of genetic drift in causing changes in allele frequency in small populations. Students should be able to: explain why individuals within a population of a species may show a wide range of variation in phenotype explain why genetic drift is important only in small populations explain how natural selection and isolation may result in change in the allele and phenotype frequency and lead to the formation of a new species explain how evolutionary change over a long period of time has resulted in a great diversity of species.7.4 Populations in ecosystemsPopulations of different species form a community. A community and the non-living components of its environment together form an ecosystem. Ecosystems can range in size from the very small to the very large. Within a habitat, a species occupies a niche governed by adaptation to both abiotic and biotic conditions. An ecosystem supports a certain size of population of a species, called the carrying capacity. This population size can vary as a result of: the effect of abiotic factors interactions between organisms: interspecific and intraspecific competition and predation. The size of a population can be estimated using: randomly placed quadrats, or quadrats along a belt transect, for slow-moving or non-motile organisms the mark-release-recapture method for motile organisms. The assumptions made when using the mark-release-recapture method. Ecosystems are dynamic systems. Primary succession, from colonisation by pioneer species to climax community. At each stage in succession, certain species may be recognised which change the environment so that it becomes more suitable for other species with different adaptations. The new species may change the environment in such a way that it becomes less suitable for the previous species. Changes that organisms produce in their abiotic environment can result in a less hostile environment and change biodiversity. Conservation of habitats frequently involves management of succession. 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